David Humes Thoughts On Empiricism Essay Example for Free

David Humes Thoughts On Empiricism Essay One of the most notable figures in the history of western philosophy was Scottish philosopher David Hume. Hume was widely known for his views on Empiricism. Empiricism has been pondered since the beginnings of philosophy by many famous figures, from Aristotle to John Locke. (Wikipedia) Empiricism claims that human knowledge is founded on observation and use of the five senses. Hume published a literary work titled Enquiry concerning Human Understanding. This had a profound impact on empiricist philosophy. (Heter) In section 2 of the Enquiry concerning Human Understanding, titled Of the Origin of Ideas, Hume makes distinctions about impressions and ideas. Simply stating how a memory obtained from the central nervous system can never reach the level of raw, vividness that the original impression had made. An example of this concept can be something along the lines of experiencing free fall. We have all experienced free fall at some point in our lives. Simply recalling that moment can never fully allow us to grasp the gut wrenching excitement of pure gravity. An interesting thought brought forward in section 2 is The Copy Principle. Hume states But though our thought seems to possess this unbounded liberty, we shall find, upon a nearer examination, that it is really confined within very narrow limits, and that all this creative power of the mind amounts to no more than the faculty of compounding, transposing, augmenting, or diminishing the materials afforded us by the senses and real life experience†¦(Enquiry, Section II) In laymans terms, imagination of the human mind might be perceived as limitless. However, in  reality, it is really a combination of sensory information and real life experiences. To this end, Hume believes that there are no truly original ideas. Everything we can conceive is a copy or modification of material afforded to us by our surroundings. Examples of this can be found all around us. Such as the design of a plane matching the shape of a bird or Velcro behaving as burdock burrs. (Bloomberg) An interesting point Hume brings to our attention is the Blind Man Argument. Hume claims that a person born blind has no notions of what color is. If you grant that individual the ability to see, you present him with a new channel for ideas. Without this inlet, he would have no idea what color is. Therefore, color must come from the senses. (Enquiry, Section II) One might object to Humes copy principle by stating that original ideas are created quite frequently. A perfect example of this is the telephone. There was no object in the known universe that was able to transmit encoded sound waves through electrical wire over vast distances to a receiver before the telephone. This invention came into existence through pure innovation. The blind man argument presents an error. Just because a blind man cannot make an association between the word red and the color red doesnt mean that they have never seen it before. Perhaps the man has seen the color red countless times in his dreams. However, without having another individual identify the same color and help him form the association between the word and the color, the blind man will never know what red means. Countering my objection to The Copy Principle, all the natural resources we are afforded on earth  can be combined, transformed or restructured to create something else. Basically, everything we have created can be broken down to the raw materials found within our environment. This makes it impossible to create something truly new. The telephone is simply a combination of oil, copper, aluminum, silicone, ect. In defense of The Blind Man Argument, people born without the ability to see, claim they see nothing. They might understand how the color spectrum works but they will never be able to sense what the actual color looks like. For one to know the answer to this debate, he or she have the ability to see and be blind at the same time. Hume certainly brings up some interesting concepts. For this reason, scholars have been studying his ideas for centuries. Empiricism and rationalism are in constant disagreement. Both philosophical notions are extremely hard to disprove. Works Cited Hennighausen, Amelia, and Eric Roston. 14 Smart Inventions Inspired by Nature: Biomimicry: Nature as RD Lab. Bloomberg. com. Bloomberg, 19 Aug. 2013. Web. 20 Sept. 2013. Heter, T. Storm. Empiricism. First Philosophy: A Handbook for Beginning Philosophers. N. p. : n. p. , n. d. 15-21. Print. Hume, David. Section II: Of the Origin of Ideas. An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding. N. p. : n. p. , 1784. N. pag. Print. Wikipedia contributors. David Hume. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 30 Aug. 2013. Web. 21 Sep. 2013. Wikipedia contributors. Empiricism. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 15 Sep. 2013. Web. 21 Sep. 2013.

Animal Intelligence and Evolution of the Human Mind

Animal Intelligence and Evolution of the Human Mind The human brain lacks conspicuous characteristics-such as relative or absolute size-that might account for humans superior intellect. Researchers have found some clues to humanitys aptitude on a smaller scale, such as more neurons in our brains outermost layer. Human intelligence may be best likened to an upgrade of the cognitive capacities of nonhuman primates rather than an exceptionally advanced form of cognition. Subtle refinements in brain architecture, rather than large-scale alterations, make us smarter than other animals. As far as we know, no dog can compose music, no dolphin can speak in rhymes, and no parrot can solve equations with two unknowns. Only humans can perform such intellectual feats, presumably because we are smarter than all other animal species-at least by our own definition of intelligence. Of course, intelligence must emerge from the workings of the three-pound mass of wetware packed inside our skulls. Thus, researchers have tried to identify unique features of the human brain that could account for our superior intellectual abilities. But, anatomically, the human brain is very similar to that of other primates because humans and chimpanzees share an ancestor that walked the earth less than seven million years ago. Accordingly, the human brain contains no highly conspicuous characteristics that might account for the species cleverness. For instance, scientists have failed to find a correlation between absolute or relative brain size and acumen among humans and other animal species. Neither have they been able to discern a parallel between wits and the size or existence of specific regions of the brain, excepting perhaps Brocas area, which governs speech in people. The lack of an obvious structural correlate to human intellect jibes with the idea that our intelligence may not be wholly unique: studies are revealing that chimps, among various other species, possess a diversity of humanlike social and cognitive skills. Nevertheless, researchers have found some microscopic clues to humanitys aptitude. We have more neurons in our brains cerebral cortex (its outermost layer) than other mammals do. The insulation around nerves in the human brain is also thicker than that of other species, enabling the nerves to conduct signals more rapidly. Such biological subtleties, along with behavioral ones, suggest that human intelligence is best likened to an upgrade of the cognitive capacities of nonhuman primates rather than an exceptionally advanced form of cognition. Smart Species Because animals cannot read or speak, their aptitude is difficult to discern, much less measure. Thus, comparative psychologists have invented behavior-based tests to assess birds and mammals abilities to learn and remember, to comprehend numbers and to solve practical problems. Animals of various stripes-but especially nonhuman primates-often earn high marks on such action-oriented IQ tests. During World War I, German psychologist Wolfgang Kà ¶hler, for example, showed that chimpanzees, when confronted with fruit hanging from a high ceiling, devised an ingenious way to get it: they stacked boxes to stand on to reach the fruit. They also constructed long sticks to reach food outside their enclosure. Researchers now know that great apes have a sophisticated understanding of tool use and construction. Psychologists have used such behavioral tests to illuminate similar cognitive feats in other mammals as well as in birds. Pigeons can discriminate between male and female faces and among paintings by different artists; they can also group pictures into categories such as trees, selecting those belonging to a category by pecking with their beaks, an action that often brings a food reward. Crows have intellectual capacities that are overturning conventional wisdom about the brain. Behavioral ecologists, on the other hand, prefer to judge animals on their street smarts-that is, their ability to solve problems relevant to survival in their natural habitats-rather than on their test-taking talents. In this view, intelligence is a cluster of capabilities that evolved in response to particular environments. Some scientists have further proposed that mental or behavioral flexibility, the ability to come up with novel solutions to problems, is another good measure of animal intellect. Among birds, green herons occasionally throw an object in the water to lure curious fish-a trick that, ornithologists have observed, has been reinvented by groups of these animals living in distant locales. Even fish display remarkable practical intelligence, such as the use of tools, in the wild. Cichlid fish, for instance, use leaves as baby carriages for their egg masses. Animals also can display humanlike social intelligence. Monkeys engage in deception, for example; dolphins have been known to care for another injured pod member (displaying empathy), and a whale or porpoise may recognize itself in the mirror. Even some fish exhibit subtle kinds of social skills. Behavioral ecologist Redouan Bshary of the University of Neuchà ¢tel in Switzerland and his colleagues described one such case in a 2006 paper. Bony fish such as the so-called cleaner wrasse (Labroides dimidiatus) cooperate and remove parasites from the skin of other fish or feed on their mucus. Bsharys team found that bystander fish spent more time next to cleaners the bystanders had observed being cooperative than to other fish. Humans, the authors note, tend to notice altruistic behavior and are more willing to help do-gooders whom they have observed doing favors for others. Similarly, cleaner wrasses observe and evaluate the behavior of other finned ocean denizens and are more willing t o help fish that they have seen assisting third parties. From such studies, scientists have constructed evolutionary hierarchies of intelligence. Primates and cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) are considered the smartest mammals. Among primates, humans and apes are considered cleverer than monkeys, and monkeys more so than prosimians. Of the apes, chimpanzees and bonobos rank above gibbons, orangutans and gorillas. Dolphins and sperm whales are supposedly smarter than nonpredatory baleen whales such as blue whales. Among birds, scientists consider parrots, owls and corvids (crows and ravens) the brightest. Such a pecking order argues against the idea that intelligence evolved along a single path, culminating in human acumen. Instead intellect seems to have emerged independently in birds and mammals and also in cetaceans and primates. Heavy Thoughts? What about the brain might underlie these parallel paths to astuteness? One candidate is absolute brain size. Although many studies have linked brain mass with variations in human intelligence [see High- ­Aptitude Minds, by Christian Hoppe and Jelena Stojanovic], size does not always correlate with smarts in different species. For example, clever small animals such as parrots, ravens, rats and relatively diminutive apes have brains of modest proportions, whereas some large animals such as horses and cows with large brains are comparatively dim-witted. Brain bulk cannot account for human intelligence either: At eight to nine kilograms, sperm and killer whale brains far outweigh the 1.4 kilograms of neural tissue inside our heads. As heavy as five kilograms, elephant brains are also much chunkier than ours. Relative brain size-the ratio of brain to body mass-does not provide a satisfying explanation for interspecies differences in smarts either. Humans do compare favorably with many medium and large species: our brain makes up approximately 2 percent of our body weight, whereas the blue whales brain, for instance, is less than one 100th of a percent of its weight. But some tiny, not terribly bright animals such as shrews and squirrels win out in this measure. In general, small animals boast relatively large brains, and large animals harbor relatively small ones. Although absolute brain mass increases with body weight, brain mass as a proportion of body mass tends to decrease with rising body weight. Another cerebral yardstick that scientists have tried to tie to intelligence is the degree of encephalization, measured by the encephalization quotient (EQ). The EQ expresses the extent to which a species relative brain weight deviates from the average in its animal class, say, mammal, bird or amphibian. Here the human brain tops the list: it is seven to eight times larger than would be expected for a mammal of its weight. But EQ does not parallel intellect perfectly either: gibbons and some capuchin monkeys have higher EQs than the more intelligent chimpanzees do, and even a few pro ­sim ­ians-the earliest evolved primates alive today-have higher EQs than gorillas do. Or perhaps the size of the brains outermost layer, the cerebral cortex-the seat of many of our cognitive capacities-is the key. But it turns out that the dimensions of the cerebral cortex depend on those of the entire brain and that the size of the cortex constitutes no better arbiter of a superior mind. The same is true for the prefrontal cortex, the hub of reason and action planning. Although some brain researchers have claimed in the past that the human prefrontal cortex is exceptionally large, recent studies have shown that it is not. The size of this structure in hu ­mans is comparable to its size in other  ­primates and may even be relatively small as compared with its counterpart in elephants and cetaceans. The lack of a large-scale measure of the human brain that could explain our performance may reflect the idea that human intellect may not be totally inimitable. Apes, after all, understand cause and effect, make and use tools, produce and comprehend language, and lie to and imitate others. These primates may even possess a theory of mind-the ability to understand another animals mental state and use it to guide their own behavior. Whales, dolphins and even some birds boast some of these mental talents as well. Thus, adult humans may simply be more intuitive and facile with tools and language than other species are, as opposed to possessing unique cognitive skills. Networking Fittingly, researchers have found the best correlates for intelligence by looking at a much smaller scale. Brains consist of nerve cells, or neurons, and supporting cells called glia. The more neurons, the more extensive and more productive the neuronal networks can be-and those networks determine varied brain functions, including perception, memory, planning and thinking. Large brains do not automatically have more neurons; in fact, neuronal density generally decreases with increasing brain size because of the additional glial cells and blood vessels needed to support a big brain. Humans have 11.5 billion cortical neurons-more than any other mammal, because of the human brains high neuronal density. Humans have only about half a billion more cortical neurons than whales and elephants do, however-not enough to account for the significant cognitive differences between humans and these species. In addition, however, a brains information-processing capacity depends on how fast its nerves conduct electrical impulses. The most rapidly conducting nerves are swathed in sheaths of insulation called myelin. The thicker a nerves myelin sheath, the faster the neural impulses travel along that nerve. The myelinated nerves in the brains of whales and elephants are demonstrably thinner than they are in primates, suggesting that information travels faster in the human brain than it does in the brains of nonprimates. What is more, neuronal messages must travel longer distances in the relatively large brains of elephants and whales than they do in the more compact human brain. The resulting boost in information-processing speed may at least partly explain the disparity in aptitude between humans and other big-brained creatures. Among humans cerebral advantages, language may be the most obvious. Various animals can convey complex messages to other members of their species; they can communicate about objects that are not in sight and relay information about individuals and events. Chimpanzees, gorillas, dolphins and parrots can even understand and use human speech, gestures or symbols in constructions of up to about three words. But even after years of training, none of these creatures develops verbal skills more advanced than those of a three-year-old child. In humans, grammar and vocabulary all but explode at age three. This timing corresponds with the development of Brocas speech area in the left frontal lobe, which may be unique to humans. That is, scientists are unsure whether a direct precursor to this speech region exists in the nonhuman primate brain. The absence of an intricately wired language region in the brains of other species may explain why, of all animals, humans alone have a language that contains complex grammar. Researchers date the development of human grammar and syntax to between 80,000 and 100,000 years ago, which makes it a relatively recent evolutionary advance. It was also one that probably greatly enhanced human intellect.

Important Issues Facing The European Union Today Economics Essay

Important Issues Facing The European Union Today Economics Essay The European Union is an integration of European states that encompasses different histories, institutions, political systems and economies. At present the EU boasts 27 member countries with a combined population of over 500 million. The creation of a single currency, the euro, has led these citizens to depend heavily on the union for the success of their respective economies. Furthermore, many others nations out with EU jurisdiction rely on the EU for trade, finance and investment aid. Political historians such as Leonard (2005) have argued that the EU has been in a state of crisis since its inception. However, despite such problems, the EU has emerged as a strong, steady and powerful force in the global political arena. The dawn of the 21st century has brought with it fresh challenges for the EU to address. Many of these issues were outlined by EU President Jose Manuel Barroso in a speech at the European Parliament in 2007. Barroso cited economic reforms, unemployment, social justice and climate change as being matters of pressing concern (2007). This essay serves to highlight these problems and explain why they are the most important issues facing the European Union today. One of the major problems facing the EU is the ever increasing levels of unemployment affecting the majority of the member states. Barroso (2007) stated that close to 20 million EU citizens were classed as unemployed. More worryingly, Barroso stressed that many of those out of work were of a younger demographic. Modigliani (2005) warned that such rates of unemployment can lead to resources being wasted, a decline in output and thus a loss in savings and investment within the economy. Modigliani also hastened to add that unemployment levels can lead to complicated and long-standing social problems as individuals affected can grow despondent and discouraged by the lack of job opportunities. Therefore, unemployment is an important issue impinging on all of the EU states. Bertola (2000) alluded to labour market participation rates, wage inequality, employment dispersion across EU regions and market performance as being the major causes of high unemployment levels within the EU. Labour market performance is guided by government and institutional policies in the EU which in turn control minimum wages, taxation and unemployment benefits. Room (2006) and Barroso (2007) argue that although there are many ways to reduce unemployment, such as wage differentiation and geographical mobility, such measures could alter the economic and political equilibrium currently in place in the EU. Additionally, Wallstrom (2007) is quick to point out that although the elimination of unemployment subsidies across the EU states would reduce unemployment levels, it would in consequence increase the poverty and crime rates thus leading to accelerated levels of social exclusion. As a result, these repercussions have raised alarming concerns for both public and politicians alike as the EU struggles to implement a programme of reform to address the situation. Access to the member states products, capital and labour resources could provide economic efficiency but the levels of regulation required would prove extremely hard to sustain. In response to the growing problems with unemployment, the EU Commission has proposed some measures designed to tackle the issue. These include a revamp of the member states growth and job strategies as well as increasing investment on research and development. It is hoped that this in turn would lead to increased economic output and thus the creation of jobs in the process. However, Wallstrom (2007) argues this could prove a difficult task given the heterogeneous social and economic structures of the EU member states. Additionally, the collapse of the world economy in 2008 has lead to a global recession and has seen employment levels in the EU increase dramatically. The Employment in Europe Report (2009) estimated unemployment levels in Europe would break the10% mark in 2010 and would continue to rise. The issue of climate change has come to the fore spectacularly in the 21st century and is another important issue facing the European Union. Changes in climate variations are occurring around the globe raising genuine concerns about the stability of the planets ecosystem. According to Schroter (2005) these deviations may have a direct affect on levels of food production and water supplies. For example, Berkhout (2005) noted harvest failure within a country can impact the price of certain food commodities in the EU due to imports. Brandt (2001) explains that these growing concerns lead to the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol an environmentally friendly policy sanctioned via the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change designed to bring greenhouse gas emissions under control in 1997. In the summer of 2003, a heat wave engulfed much of Europe resulting in record temperatures being recorded. Beniston (2004) stated that the heat wave bore a resemblance to the type of temperatures anticipated by the end of the 21 century. Beniston (2004) concluded that due to an enhanced atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gas, summer temperatures could be expected to increase by 4 degrees celsius on average. According to Christiansen Wettestad (2003), the EU generates one of the highest levels of greenhouse gas emissions and accounts for 25% of the worlds production. Brandt (2001) states the EU expects that there will be a 0.8% increase in CO2 emissions annually. Furthermore, the EU faces additional problems with its failure to persuade its members to adopt the carbon tax due to the many rules and regulations incorporated in the policy (Christiansen Wettestad, 2003). The use of fossil fuels is another factor that leads to global warming and can have a detrimental long term affect on the climate. Kruger Pizer (2004) cite that increased emission levels due to the development of the transport sector have led to further issues for the EU to address. These substantial growths in emission output can have a direct impact on allowance prices if the EU attempted to meet Kyoto Protocol targets by using offset purchases. The growing carbon market is another area of concern for the European Union. Howse Eliason (2008) argue that it is crucial levels of carbon footprint are monitored in order to reduce emissions in the air. According to Kruger et al. (2007) the European Union launched an emissions trading program in 2005 with the aim of meeting the Kyoto Protocol targets for tackling climate change. However, the complexity of the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is causing the member states to experience various political and economic challenges as they attempt to meet the targets set by the Kyoto Protocol. Howse Eliason (2008) cite that an investigation carried out by the Financial Times concluded that a number of companies operating within EU boundaries receive unjust carbon credits and that this is causing an unfair subsidy distribution in EU states. Howse Eliason, (2008) claim this is an issue because the results do not coincide with emissions reduction. Therefore, the EU needs to devise strategies to regulate such outcomes. The issue of security is another obstacle facing the European Union. Kicinger (2004) writes that external threats to security present far greater problems than those posed internally. To put it simply, this is because these threats cannot be predicted. One such threat is terrorism. Wallstrom (2007) argues that although Europes policy of passport-free travel is beneficial for business and tourism, it allows cross-border terrorists and criminals freedom of access within the member states. Terrorism is a major issue because innocent peoples lives are at stake. Schilder Hauschild (2004) note that EU states are also used as a base to plan and devise terrorist attacks. These criminals deploy state of the art resources, have well maintained networks and are capable of resorting to horrific levels of violence. Kicinger (2004) writes that Al Qaeda an Islamist fundamental group formed in the late 1980s and renowned for its terrorist activities housed logistical cells in the EU member states of the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy and Spain. Therefore, the concentrated effort of the EU to tackle such problems is crucial. Another security concern for the EU is the technological advancements in modern arms. This puts the current security measures in place by the EU in question. Flow of trade and investment within the European states has given rise to the prosperity of the EUs inhabitants. However, in spite of the advantages that free trade has brought, it has also heightened the threat of internal terrorism. Europe is now a playground for organised crime and is rife with drug trafficking, illegal immigrants and prostitution (Schilder Hauschild, 2004). Cross-border and neighboring threats also add to the security concerns of the European Union. Disputes in Kashmir and the Korean Peninsula as detailed by Schilder Hauschild (2004) affected the EU member states both directly and indirectly. The European Union Commission has pledged to combat the security threat and via foreign policy and crisis management initiatives have made provisions for security. According to Barroso (2007), these include securing borders with member states and with international countries more effectively. Moreover, the EU is attempting to forge policies and agreements with their transatlantic partners in order to minimise any threats posed to security although this is proving a difficult task to achieve. In conclusion, since its formation in 1993, the European Union has served to address a great number of important issues. These issues are not solely confined to the borders of EU but are commonly dealt with throughout the world. This essay has highlighted the EUs growing problems with unemployment levels, focused on the pearls of climate change and has detailed the threat of terrorism to the EUs stability. These are just a few of the important issues facing the European Union today.

The Internet is More of a Help than Hindrance :: essays research papers

We are all familiar with internet. Since it was born to affirm the development of society, it rapidly changes our life so much. How does it impact on us? What do you think its value could be a help or a hindrance? Let?s discover the answer by now. Everyday, imagine how man people in the world using internet? What does it used for? Why it is a help? 1. a help ? super human it is clever because it obtains a marvellous mind( memory) Eg: it is a perfect teacher with incredible ability at the same time it can teach thousands students with various range of knowledge. it helps you to find information and solve the problems about politic, business, health? ? super speed Using internet your time is saved by second. Its special term is "what you see is what you get? Imagine that how long it takes you to market to buy goods? Instead just log in internet you can buy clothes, food, banking, booking the ticket while you can relax and do other jobs as well. ? super accurate It is intangible spy. From the internet you are able to monitor exactly what is happening in the moon? Even watch the news in America. Thus, I honestly suggest that internet makes your life easier and more convenient with faster speed and effective work. 1. A hindrance On the other hand it is hindrance when people use it for the dark purpose. For example, children are likely to play game which is resulted less effort in study, others like to copy available resources down as their idea. Moreover, according to ABC news, last year two students were suicide as they surfing internet. It causes a shock for numerous of students. As a result, internet is murderer. Other example is after watching the horror and sex films the teenagers and adult like to do the same as the film did. It poisons the human nature.

The Progressive Movement Essay example -- American History Essays

The Progressive Movement The progressive movement of the early 20th century has proved to be an intricately confounded conundrum for American historians. Who participated in this movement? What did it accomplish, or fail to accomplish? Was it a movement at all? These are all significant questions that historians have been grappling with for the last 60 years, thus creating a historical dialogue where in their different interpretations interact with each other. The most commonly known, and consequently most watered down, version of the progressive movement argues that this era was simply an effort by the middle class to cure many of the social and political ills of American society that had developed during the rapid industrial growth in the last quarter of the 19th century. This explanation has proven to be a woefully inadequate in the face of the complexities that characterize these times. In Richard Hofstadter’s The Age of Reform, Peter Filene’s â€Å"An Obituary for the Progressive Movement,† Richard McCormick’s â€Å"The Discovery that Business Corrupts Politics,† and Paula Baker’s â€Å"The Domestication of Politics† each author asserts their own unique interpretations of the progressive movement. These distinct examinations each chart and thus manifest the fluidity of knowledge about this particular time period and how it has been shaped reshaped by new analysis. Richard Hofstadter, the leftward leaning author of Age of Reform, in his appraisal of the progressive movement makes the central argument that the progressive movement was not catalyzed by economics or moral principal but instead by psychology. Hofstadter describes the progressives as primarily â€Å"urban, middle class, and nation wide.† He makes the case that t... ... an impact on the system as a whole. An interesting comparison can be made between Hofstadter’s â€Å"status revolution† and Baker’s suffrage movement. Both can be seen as psychologically driven movements that interacted during the progressive era. Baker and Hofstadter also both cite a vast and complex struggle to improve the status of a particular social group. Baker on one hand describes women’s fight for the right to be seen as equal to men, most definitely in a political sense if not in a social sense as well, while Hofstadter makes the case that the progressives were driven to action by the need to reclaim their former status of superiority over the emerging newly rich industrialists. Although Baker does not seem to give the amount of attention to psychology that Hofstadter does an undeniable correlation can still be made between the arguments of both authors.

Restoration of Rauza Sharif, Sirhind, Punjab

RESTORATION OF RAUZA SHARIF, SIRHIND, PUNJAB Abstraction:Sacred memorials such as Mausoleums, Shrines, and Dargahs of Sufis represent the traditional grave architecture. Among the major such Mausoleumsâ€Å"The Rauza Sharif of Mujaddid Alfisani†at Sirhind, Punjab is like one of these memorials holding great historical, spiritual and cultural significance. Hence our purpose is to document the present conditions of the impact zone, in footings of Architecture, planning, stuffs and engineering and place the lack on assorted foreparts, based on this analysis of the impact zone, place the potency of architectural intercessions and consequently propose appropriate design solution to turn to the concerns of today and tomorrow. Keywords:Sacred memorials, Dargahs, congestion, climatic impact, climatic control, invasions, atmosphere, holiness, repose. Introduction: Brief history: The sacred â€Å"RAUZA SHARIF† at Sirhind, Punjab is the topographic point of historical significance and besides spiritual and cultural significance.RauzaSharifor Dargah ofShaikh Ahmad FaruqiSirhindi( popularly known as Mujaddid, Alf-Isfani )is situated on theSirhind–Bassi PathanaRoad at a little distance to the North ofGurdwara Fatehgarh Sahib. Sheikh Ahmed Farooqi lived at this topographic point during the times ofAkbarandJahangirfrom 1563 to 1624. TheUrsjubilation ( decease day of remembrance ) of the Mujadid are held here for more than 300 old ages and are mostly attended byMoslemsfromIndia,Pakistan,Afghanistan,Dutch east indies,Bangladeshand other Muslim states. There are a figure of other graves in the compound largely of the members of Shaikh Ahmad ‘s house. The mausoleum is a all right edifice made of bricks partially overlaid with rock and marble. Near to it there is the mausoleum of Rati-ud-Din, an ascendant of the Mujadid. Not far here are the rauzas of Mujaddid’s boies Khawaja Muhammad Sadiq and Khwaja Muhammad Masum. The rauza of latter is sometimes called rauzachini on history of its first-class mosaic work. In its premises are many other Gravess of the members of the house of the said reformist and some members of the governing household ofKabul. There is a expansive mosque with a cellar and a little armored combat vehicle for executing ablution before the supplications. The shrine has since been taken over by Government of India as a historic memorial and regular employees have been kept here for its care, up maintain and care. The point of position of every person with regard to the sacredness of a holy topographic point varies. most of the trusters follow the lone imprints of their ascendants and give no importance to the atmosphere and holiness of the topographic point which if non given consideration will eventually ensue in a topographic point holding merely crowd of trusters sitting in a topographic point of heavy via medias in footings of infinite quality and kernel of the sacred feel. For illustration. KALIYAR SHARIF. One gets a cheerless feeling if he/she visits the topographic point for the first clip. Though the program is really much celebrated and one becomes eager to see it when he hears its name. In the same manner â€Å"The Rauza Sharif† at Sirhind, should be given the attending so that in the class of clip the increase in the figure of multitudes sing this topographic point do non present any sort of menace to its atmosphere. PRESENT AREA OF STUDY The present country of site of Rauza Sharif covers an country of approximately 12 Estates, embracing 7 shrines with the chief shrine of AL MUJADID as per our first visit we found following factors which should be thought of and their solutions should be incorporated in the design proposal for the development and preservation of this heritage site.The ancient constructions of the site such as the guestrooms, ablution pool etc. should be maintained and given due importance the guestrooms doors open towards the chief entryway ambulatory plaza disturb the privateness of its invitees, apart from this there is excessively much congestion in these suites. The solution of this will be that the burden of these suites must be reduced and some more guest suites should be made away i.e. out of the direct sight of the visitants come ining the chief entryway gate.There is invasion in the composite by the staff houses which spoil the atmosphere of the Rauza Sharif, and should be screened off wholly from the chief shrine by relocating them someplace else on the site and by making landscape gardening.In summers noon clip one thinks of rapidly running off after sing the topographic point due to heat and tiredness, hence the countries bring forthing the plentifulness of heat such as cardinal plaza without any verdure or any shading shelter should be thought off.The shrine composite has got a plentifulness of agricultural land which can be utilized for seting fly-by-night trees apart from using them for the intent of agribusiness besides. Another thing is that there is no proper connectivity between the chief shrine and the shrines of the predecessors of Al Mujaddid as a consequence of which one leaves them unvisited, by and large during their first visit, therefore there should be a proper ocular and prosaic connectivity. Their care will besides so be given importance.The paths in the composite should be planned such that the Sub shrines should besides be visited by the visitants . These complecting tracts shall hold street furniture and besides the rock pieces holding engraved on them the history of the topographic point, thereby doing the visit more enlightening and synergistic.The pool which is unmaintained soon should besides be maintained and reopened as it will assist in cut downing the heat of the premises and will besides function the intent for which it was ab initio built i.e. ablution.Cosmic Coherence: The cosmic coherency of the premises should besides be analyzed and a layout program which coincides and lucifers with the coherent forces should be implemented in the new proposal of the shrine composite so that an environment of holiness and repose is maintained, which should decidedly be the property of the sacred infinite, as the sacred edifice is a topographic point that contains certain qualities similar to those arising from nature in harmoniousness with its milieus. Methodology:Limit of all the shrines within the country of survey of the site, placing other heritage constructions which fulfill the supportive maps for illustration the invitee house, pools etc, which are to be retained and restored.Identify the constructions presenting hinderance to the position of the heritage construction, deteriorating its atmosphere and magnificence and pulverizing them for illustration houses and quarters of the workers.The constructions which can’t be demolished should be subdued by taking one upper narrative and adding the elements which compliment the original heritage construction.Taking clime into consideration implement/provide some shading devices for illustration canopies, arbors along the paseos which will assist in cut downing heat for the visitants every bit good as staff.The prominence of the sellers selling tea, java, bites and juice should be reduced by cut downing or curtailing the size of the stall. It could be done by doing a standard faculty of the peddling stables.Planing the proper path for the prosaic traffic coming to the shrine composite such that no visitant accidentally leaves the other shrines unvisited. All the shrines within the composite should be decently maintained by carefully analyzing these constructions and taking the multiple beds of white wash applied over their surface one over the other in due class of clip thereby uncovering the original masonry construction and eventually cleansing and using the transparent varnish over its surface to protect it against the gnawing conditions.Peoples populating in the premises besides rear cowss. They should be besides given due consideration and should be planned carefully.Decision: The heritage site under survey should be restored in such a manner that it is free from ugly invasions or instead free from the invasions of peripheral importance to supply positions and views in the site, taking to and from the heritage edifices to the public topographic points ( remainder houses, Parkss, sitting countries etc. ) . the street flower stalks should be provided such as street furniture and canopies etc. to cut down the heat generated during the hot conditions and all the heritage edifice within the composite should be readily seeable with regard to each other and the peripheral or the supportive services such as, guest house, ablution country, staff quarters and lavatories etc. should be visually segregated and physically accessible with easiness to its users. Mentions:Heritage site visit of RAUZA SHARIF, Sirhind.Internet, Wikipedia.Creative infinite diary ( January 2014 publication ) .Meeting with Prof. Kiran Joshi, Prof. S.S. Bais on 4ThursdayJune 2014

Mill’s View of Lower/Higher Pleasures

Mill is a utilitarian philosopher who lives by the Greatest Happiness Principle, in which there is a clear distinction between both lower and higher pleasures. Though thoroughly explained, one must also question the justification of these pleasures. Many of these beliefs leave the reader hanging on the edge, with further questions that need to be answered. What is the exact distinction between the lower and higher pleasures? And how are higher pleasures measured as most valuable? How clearly is Mill’s view of lower and higher pleasures justified? Mill, unlike some utilitarians (Epicureans), believes that there is an immense distinction between higher and lower pleasures. Lower pleasures, according to Mill, are those based off of sensations. â€Å"Few human creatures would consent to be changed into an of the lower animals for a promise of the fullest allowance of a beast’s pleasures†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Mill, Self-Love 506) Both humans and animals are capable of experiencing these pleasures, but what Mill believes is that only Humans are capable of the higher pleasures, and therefore no intelligent human being would chose to become an animal incapable of these more valuable pleasures. The lower pleasures are based off of sensations in which include things such as our five senses: taste, hearing, touch, sight and the sense of smell. One will experience these pleasures multiple times daily, thus reducing the amount of satisfaction one feels when experiencing a lower pleasure. Mill believes that animals and human beings both share similar experiences when it comes to the lower pleasures, but that only human beings are capable of the higher pleasures. How one measures the justification of the distinction between the lower pleasures and the higher pleasures is based mostly on opinion. It does make sense that since human beings are most definitely superior in the intellectual field that in order to achieve a greater value of happiness one must experience the higher pleasures, but who says that animals are not capable of any of the higher pleasures? â€Å"†¦to the love of power, or the love of excitement, both of which really do enter into and contribute to it†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Mill, Self-Love 507) Now, I know for a fact that my dog is very capable of being excited. All he does is run around the entire house multiple times after showing him five seconds of love. So if the love of excitement contributes greatly to a higher pleasure with a greater value of happiness, then at least some inferior species must be capable of experiencing these higher pleasures. â€Å"It is better to be a human being satisfied than a pig satisfied. † (Mill, Self-Love 507). Mill has never experienced the life of one of the â€Å"lower animals†, and therefore cannot be one hundred percent sure of his opinion. The only way to justify Mill’s answer would to conduct an experiment in which involves observing the animals’ actions and reactions. Did you know dogs have around 100 facial expressions? Now if a dog is capable of having more facial expressions than a human being, how can one come to the conclusion that dogs are incapable of any of the higher pleasures? â€Å"If I am asked what I mean by difference of quality in pleasures, or what makes one pleasure more valuable than another, merely as a pleasure†¦. Of two pleasures, if there be one to which all or almost all who have experience of both give a dedicated preference, irrespective of any feeling of moral obligation to prefer it, that is the more desirable pleasure. (Mill, Self-Love 506) What he is trying to explain is that if one of the pleasures takes precedence for the majority of the people who experienced both pleasures, without being chosen because of certain natural feelings and/or based off of the person’s morals, then that is the pleasure in which holds the greatest value. One question a critic might ask would be why not trust your moral obligat ions or your feelings? And what instinct are we to base our decision off of if we are not to trust our own feelings or morals? Mill’s view on the greatest valued pleasure is clear, but he does not explain what one should base his or her decision on. â€Å"†¦the pleasures of intellect, of the feelings and imagination, and of moral sentiments, a much higher value as pleasures than to those of mere sensation. † (Mill, Self-Love 506). Basically, only human beings have the overall brainpower to experience these â€Å"higher pleasures†. These higher pleasures do not occur as often, which then indicates that higher pleasures are more valuable, as their occurrence are significantly more rare than the lower pleasures. Most utilitarian writers, including Mill, place supremacy in mental pleasures over bodily pleasures because of their circumstantial advantages, and in regards to safety are much less risky when it comes to injury and whatnot. But one must consider the following: What about athletes? Models? Stuntmen or professional weight lifters? An individual who is perusing a career in which is physically dominated might consider physical pleasures and achievements to be of a greater value of happiness than mental pleasures. One would only assume that Mill and other tilitarian writers consider pleasures of intellect to be of greater value, they are philosophers. What they enjoy doing is exploiting their thoughts into words to share with the rest of the world; that is what keeps their motor running strong each and every day. â€Å"A being of higher faculties requires more to make him happy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Mill, Self-Love 507). Mill in his eyes is justified by this due to the fact that he believes t hat humans are the only living beings capable of higher pleasures on Earth, so therefore a human being must have these higher pleasures because of their need for a greater value of happiness. But on the contrary, if a being of a lower faculty requires less to be happy, then the lower pleasures should be just as valuable to the inferior species as the higher pleasures are to the more capable beings. Who says that the other animals on this planet are inferior beings to humans anyways? How does one measure superiority? It all depends on the individual’s opinion. Someone like Mill might believe that mental capability and capacity are the most accurate units of measurement when it comes to who is the top dog. But just because human beings are more capable than animals mentally, it does not mean that we are the superior beings. If one were to measure superiority in the aspect of happiness, then one would have to believe that the lower species are most superior. Every living being on planet Earth is on the pursuit of happiness, and if lower species receive more satisfaction from the lower pleasures, then the beings we think to be inferior are much better off than we are. Since human beings are so much more capable mentally, then they are also more prone to be unhappy, as the lower pleasures are taken for granted since they do not provide enough happiness for one to be as satisfied as the other animal species. Mill believes in a clear distinction between the â€Å"lower and higher pleasures†, and that only humans are capable of the higher pleasures. One must question just how justified Mill is in his beliefs, as he has never experienced life as a â€Å"lower animal†. Who says that the higher pleasures only include those associated with the mental world?